Roman Empire Timeline
Introduction to the Roman Empire Timeline and the Problematic of Start and End Dates for the Last Period in Roman History
History of the ancient Roman civilization is typically divided into three periods:
- Roman Kingdom (753 BC - 509 BC)
- Roman Republic (509 BC - 27 BC) and
- Roman Empire (27 BC - 395 AD/476 AD)
Both start and end dates for the Roman Empire remain a matter of debate and different historians use different events to mark the beginning or/and end of this period in Roman history, depending on the context. We have decided to start our Roman Empire timeline in year 27 BC when Octavian, great-nephew of Julius Caesar was awarded the title Augustus (“the revered one”) by the Roman Senate although the founder of the Roman Empire never called himself emperor and formally defended the Roman Republic.
Alternative start dates for the Roman Empire include year 44 BC when Julius Caesar was assassinated and year 31 BC when Octavian decisively defeated Mark Antony’s and Cleopatra’s fleet in the Battle of Actium. Both events set the stage for the future Octavian’s de facto imperial rule, however, the fate of the Roman Republic was unclear in both year 44 BC and 31 BC.
Technically speaking, the Roman Empire came to an end only with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. But the Byzantine Empire as the eastern half of the former Roman Empire is traditionally called during the medieval period had little in common with the ancient Roman civilization. Just as problematic is year 476 which is the most commonly given end date for the Roman Empire. The deposition of the last Western Roman Emperor by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer had indeed strike the final blow to the classical world of the ancient Romans but it did not cause it. In addition, there was still the Eastern Roman Empire which had shown an ambition to restore the former Roman Empire under the authority of the emperor in Constantinople. Lastly, the Roman Empire changed dramatically after the Crisis of the 3rd century, while the western and eastern halves of the empire virtually became two independent units after the death of Emperor Theodosius I in 395 AD.
We have not decided to end our Roman Empire timeline with year 395 AD only due to the fact that the Empire permanently split into eastern and western halves after Theodosius’ death. The Western Roman Empire in the 5th century was more similar to the medieval world rather than to the ancient Roman civilization, while the power in Rome was de facto in the hands of the barbarian military leaders from the mid-5th century.
ROMAN EMPIRE TIMELINE FROM 27 BC TO 395 AD
January 16, 27 BC - Octavian is granted the title Augustus and Princeps (“the first citizen”) by the Roman Senate.
23 BC - Augustus is granted the power of a tribune for lifetime giving him the right to convene the Senate and veto the laws, and making him the chief commander of the Roman army.
March 6, 12 BC - Augustus is elected successor of Lepidus, pontifex maximus (the high priest of the College of Pontiffs).
4 AD - Augustus adopts his step-son Tiberius Claudius Nero and designates him as his heir.
9 - The Roman army is heavily defeated by the Germanic tribes led by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
August 19, 14 - The first Roman Emperor, Augustus dies aged 75 and is succeeded by his adopted son Tiberius.
October 10, 19 - Germanicus, Augustus’ grand-son-in-law and great nephew and Tiberius’ adopted son dies in Antioch, leaving the Emperor’s biological son Drusus the Younger as his sole successor.
July 1, 23 - Tiberius’ son and successor Drusus the Younger is poisoned by his wife Livilla (granddaughter of Augustus’ wife Livia) and Sejanus, the Emperor’s Praetorian prefect.
March 16, 37 - Emperor Tiberius dies aged 77. He is thought to have been murdered by the prefect of the Praetorian guard. Tiberius is succeeded by his adopted son Caligula, the son of Augustus’ great-nephew Germanicus and his biological granddaughter Agrippina the Elder.
January 24, 41 - Emperor Caligula is assassinated by his Praetorian guards. He is succeeded by his uncle Claudius who was both Augustus’ grand-son-in-law and great nephew.
43 - Claudius begins the Roman conquest of Britain.
February 25, 50 - Claudius adopts his step-son Nero to the disadvantage of his biological son Britannicus.
October 12, 54 - Emperor Claudius is allegedly poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger, sister of Emperor Caligula.
October 13, 54 - Claudius is succeeded by Nero.
July 18 - 19, 64 - The Great Fire of Rome. Nero blames the Christians.
65 - The Pisonian conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso to assassinate Nero fails. Roman philosopher, statesman and former Nero’s tutor, Seneca the Younger is forced to commit suicide for complicity in the plot.
June 9, 68 - Nero commits suicide. With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty becomes extinct.
69 - The Year of the Four Emperors. Nero’s death provokes a struggle for the Imperial title which is briefly held by three men - Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the ascension of Vespasian who starts the rule of the Flavian dynasty.
70 - Titus, son and successor of Emperor Vespasian destroys the city and the Temple of Jerusalem.
June 24, 79 - Emperor Vespasian dies aged 69. He is succeeded by his son Titus.
August 24, 79 - The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroys the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
80 - Titus completes the Colosseum, the construction of which started during his predecessor’s rule.
September 13, 81 - Emperor Titus dies aged 41. He is succeeded by his brother Domitian.
83 - Domitian orders the construction of the Limes Germanicus, a system of fortifications along the Rhine River to defend the Roman Empire from the Germanic tribes.
September 18, 96 - Emperor Domitian is assassinated by the court officials. The Senate declares Nerva as the Roman Emperor. He starts the rule of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty.
October 27, 97 - A revolt of the Praetorian guards forces Nerva to adopt the Roman general Trajan as his heir.
January 27, 98 - Emperor Nerva dies of natural causes. He is succeeded by Trajan.
106 - Trajan conquers Dacia (roughly corresponding to the present-day Romania and Moldova) and annexes the Nabataean kingdom located between the Arabian and Sinai peninsulas.
114 - 117 - Trajan conquers Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria during the war against Parthia.
August 8, 117 - Emperor Trajan dies aged 63.
August 11, 117 - The Syrian legions proclaim Hadrian as the Roman Emperor.
122 - Hadrian orders the construction of the Hadrian’s Wall in Great Britain. The 120 kilometers (74.5 miles) long defensive wall is completed in 136.
136 - After the Bar Kokhba’s Revolt, Hadrian expels the Jews from Jerusalem.
July 10, 138 - Emperor Hadrian dies aged 62. He is succeeded by his adopted son Antoninus Pius.
142 - Antoninus Pius orders the construction of the Antonine Wall in Great Britain on the line from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde.
March 7, 161 - Antoninus Pius dies aged 74. His successor Marcus Aurelius makes his brother Lucius Verus co-Emperor.
166 - The outbreak of the so-called Antonine Plague forces the Romans to conclude peace with the Partians who are forced to cede Mesopotamia to the Roman Empire.
166 - The Germanic tribe of the Marcomanni cross the Danube River and start the First Marcomannic War.
169 - Lucius Verus dies, leaving Marcus Aurelius as sole emperor.
November 23, 176 - Marcus Aurelius makes his son Commodus co-Emperor by which he ends the period of adoptive emperors that started with Trajan’s adoption in 97.
177 - The outbreak of the Second Marcomannic War.
March 17, 180 - Marcus Aurelius dies of Antonie Plague aged 58. He is succeeded by his son Commodus.
December 31, 192 - Commodus is strangled by a wrestler. He is thought to had been recruited by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus who proclaims Pertinax as Commodus’ successor. With Commodus’ death, the Nerva-Antonine dynasty becomes extinct.
193 - The Year of the Five Emperors. After Commodus’ assassination, the Imperial title is contested by five men - Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus.
June 9, 193 - Septimius Severus wins the struggle for the Imperial throne and becomes the first Roman Emperor from the Severan dynasty.
February 4, 211 - Emperor Septimius Severus dies during a campaign in Britain. He is succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta.
February 26, 212 - Caracalla orders assassination of his brother and co-Emperor Geta.
April 8, 217 - Caracalla is assassinated in Harran, an ancient city in the present-day southeastern Turkey.
July 11, 217 - Caracalla is succeeded by his Praetorian guard prefect, Macrinus who was allegedly involved in his assassination.
April 16, 218 - Elagabalus who was rumored to be Caracalla’s illegitimate son is proclaimed the Roman Emperor by the Third Gallic Legion. Macrinus is defeated and assassinated in June 218.
March 12, 222 - Emperor Elagabalus is assassinated by the Praetorian guards. He is succeeded by his adopted son Alexander Severus.
233 - The German tribe of the Alemanni break through the Limes Germanicus and reach Alsace in Gaul.
March 18/19, 235 - Alexander Severus and his mother are assassinated in a mutiny of the Roman soldiers at Moguntiacum. The last Roman Emperor from the Severan dynasty is succeeded by his adopted son Maximinus Thrax. His ascension to the Imperial throne marks the Year of the Six Emperors as well as the beginning of the Crisis of the 3rd Century.
March 238 - The Roman Senate deposes Maximinus Thrax and proclaims Gordian I and his son Gordian II as his successors.
April 238 - Gordian II is defeated and killed by the forces loyal to Maximinus Thrax. His father and joint emperor Gordian I commits suicide upon learning about his son’s death.
April 238 - Maximinus Thrax is assassinated at Aquileia, Italy. He is succeeded by Pupienus and Balbinus as joint emperors. Both, however, are assassinated after three months of rule. They are replaced by Gordian III, grandson of Gordian I and nephew of Gordian II.
244 - Emperor Gordian III is murdered. Praetorian prefect Philip the Arabian is proclaimed the new Roman Emperor.
245, 246 - Philip the Arabian repulses the barbarians invading across the Danube River.
249 - Philip the Arabian is defeated and slain by his rival emperor Decius.
250 - Emperor Decius issues an edict ordering public religious sacrifice which results in the first organized persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire.
251 - Decius is killed while trying to repel the invading Goths. He is succeeded by Gallus who makes peace with the Goths.
253 - Gallus is killed by his own troops. He is succeeded by his rival emperor Aemilianus, commander of the Moesian troops.
253 - After three months of rule, Aemilianus is slain by his own troops. He is succeeded by his rival emperor Valerian.
259 - Roman general Postumus is proclaimed emperor by his troops. He establishes his rule in the so-called Gallic Empire which comprises the Roman provinces of Gaul, Germania, Iberia and Britannia.
260 - Emperor Valerian dies in the Persian captivity. He is succeeded by his son and joint emperor Gallienus.
268 - Gallenius is murdered by conspirators led by his officials. He is succeeded by his calvary commander Claudius II (Gothicus).
268 - Claudius II (Gothicus) achieves an important victory over the Alammani at the Battle of Lake Benacus (Lake Garda, Italy). One year later, he defeats the Goths and their allies at the Battle of Naissus (near Niš, present-day Serbia).
268 - Postumus, ruler of the Gallic Empire is assassinated. His empire is reunited with the Roman Empire in 274.
270 - Claudius II (Gothicus) dies of plague. He is succeeded by his brother Quintillus who, however, died or was assassinated after a few months of rule. The new Roman Emperor becomes Claudius’ calvary commander Aurelian.
271 - Aurelian decisively defeats the invading Germanic tribes in the Battle of Pavia and orders the construction of the Aurelian Walls around Rome.
273 - Aurelian destroys the Palmyrene Empire.
275 - Aurelian is assassinated by his officers while preparing for a war against the Sassanid Empire. He is succeeded by Tacitus who, however, died or was killed after one year of rule.
276 - Tacitus’ half-brother and successor, Florian is assassinated. He is succeeded by Praetorian prefect Probus.
282 - Probus is killed by his own troops and is succeeded by his prefect of the guard, Carus who dies within a year in mysterious circumstances. Carus is succeeded by his sons Carinus in the west and Numerian in the east.
284 - Numerian is murdered by his Praetorian prefect. Diocletian, commander of the Numerian’s bodyguard is proclaimed emperor in the east.
285 - Carinus is killed by his own men during a battle against Diocletian who becomes ruler of the entire Roman Empire and ends the Crisis of the 3rd Century.
April 1, 286 - Diocletian makes his friend and ally Maximian co-Emperor.
March 1, 293 - Diocletian institutes the Tetrarchy or the rule of the four. He and Maximinus are elevated to Augusti, while Galerius and Constantius Chlorus are appointed Caesars and successors to Augusti.
303 - The Diocletianic Persecution. Diocletian issues a series of edicts which lead to the severest persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire.
July 25, 306 - Constantine I (the Great) succeeds his father, Constantius Chlorus as Augustus (Emperor) of the Eastern Roman Empire.
October 28, 306 - The (Western) Roman Emperor Maximinus is succeeded by his son Maxentius.
October 28, 312 - Constantine the Great defeats Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Constantine the Great establishes his rule in the Western Roman Empire, while Licinius who was elevated to the rank of Augustus by Emperor Galerius rules the Eastern Roman Empire. After the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine the Great converts to Christianity.
313 - Constantine the Great and his co-Emperor Licinius issue the Edict of Milan which ends the persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire.
324 - Licinius is defeated by Constantine the Great who becomes the ruler of the entire Roman Empire.
May 20, 325 - Constantine the Great convokes the First Council of Nicaea, the first ecumenical council.
May 11, 330 - Constantinople is founded by Constantine the Great as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
May 22, 337 - Constantine the Great dies aged 65. He is succeeded by his sons Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II who divide the Roman Empire among themselves.
340 - Constantine II, the ruler of Spain, Gaul and Britain invades Italy. He is defeated and killed by his younger brother Constans.
350 - Constans dies and is succeeded by his brother Constantius II who becomes sole Roman Emperor.
December 11, 361 - Julian the Apostate who is proclaimed Roman Emperor by his troops in Gaul, enters Constantinople. He succeeds Constantius II who died one month earlier.
June 26, 363 - Julian the Apostate dies during a campaign against the Sassanid Empire. He is succeeded by general present Jovian who concludes peace with the Sassanids.
February 25, 364 - The deceased Emperor Jovian is succeeded by Valentinian I. One month later, the new Emperor makes his brother Valens co-Emperor and gives him rule over the eastern half of the Roman Empire.
November 17, 375 - Emperor Valentinian I dies during a battle against the Germanic tribe of the Quadi. He is succeeded by his sons Gratian and Valentinian II.
August 9, 378 - Valens, the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire is killed during the Battle of Adrianople against the Visigoths. Gratian names Theodosius I as successor of his deceased uncle.
February 28, 380 - Together with Gratian and Valentinian II, Theodosius I issues the Edict of Thessalonica which makes the Nicene Orthodoxy the only legitimate religion in the Roman Empire.
May 1, 381 - Theodosius I summons the First Council of Constantinople which establishes the Holy Trinity doctrine as the official state religion.
February 3, 382 - Theodosius I allows the Visigoths to settle in Thrace as foederati.
August 25, 383 - The Western Roman Emperor Gratian is assassinated. He is succeeded by his brother Valentinian II who becomes ruler of Italy, Hispania, Pannonia and Africa, and usurper Magnus Maximus who rules over Britain and Gaul.
August 27, 388 - Magnus Maximus is defeated and killed by Theodosius I.
March 15, 392 - Valentinian II commits suicide or is assassinated.
September 6, 394 - Theodosius I defeats Eugenius, the usurper Western Roman Emperor in the Battle of the Frigidus. He becomes the last emperor of the entire Roman Empire.
January 17, 395 - Theodosius I dies and the Roman Empire is permanently divided into the western and eastern halves. The Western Roman Empire would come to an end in less than one century, while the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire would survive for nearly one millennium.
