Reformation and Counter Reformation
Catholic Church at the End of the Middle Ages
The Roman Catholic Church was in a state of decline at the end of the Middle Ages. It permanently lost its power to the secular rulers, while corruption and immorality of the clergy severely undermined its role as a moral authority. The church’s failure to reform itself and the rise of the new critical spirit with the Renaissance and Humanism that stimulated the intellectuals to review the teachings of the early church fathers made the revolution within the Catholic Church inevitable.
Beginning of Reformation
The beginning of Reformation, a religious movement that resulted in the establishment of Protestantism as an independent Christian Church is traditionally dated to 1517 when Martin Luther posted his 95 theses on the door of the All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg. Luther’s action was not meant as an open revolt against the Roman Catholic Church, however, his theses attacking the sale of indulgences had spread throughout Germany and most parts of Europe within few months and forced the Vatican to react. The Pope excommunicated Martin Luther for refusing to renounce his theses and radical positions in 1521, while the Diet of Worms presided by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V declared him an outlaw shortly thereafter. Meanwhile, the Reformation movement evolved into an open revolt against the Roman Catholic Church which spread throughout Germany and beyond its borders.
Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin
Huldrych Zwingli started to promote Reformation in Switzerland as early as 1519 but he developed his own theology rather than following Luther’s. Zwingli did not succeed to win the entire Switzerland and was killed in a civil war between the Protestant and Catholic cantons in 1531. His teachings, however, reached France. Zwingli’s followers provoked the so-called Affair of the Placards, an incident with anti-Catholic posters one of which appeared on the bedroom door of Francis I of France in 1534. The event resulted in brutal persecutions of the Protestants. Many fled the country including John Calvin, the most influential second-generation Protestant reformer. His theology, known as Calvinism which is primarily marked by the doctrine of predestination spread to most parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, parts of Germany and France, Hungary, Poland and Scotland.
Radical Protestant Groups and the Peasants’ War
The 1520’s and 1530’s also saw the emergence of radical Protestant groups such as Anabaptists who were persecuted by both the Catholics and Lutherans. They gained popularity among the lower classes which hoped that the spiritual renewal will lead to formation of a new, “just“ Christian society. Radicalism within the Reformation movement reached it height with the Peasants’ War, a widespread popular uprising in the German-speaking areas of the Holy Roman Empire in 1524. The upheaval which demanded radical social changes including the end of serfdom was condemned by Luther and brutally suppressed by the nobles in 1525. The defeated peasants either returned to Catholicism or were absorbed by the radical groups, while the Reformation movement in the Holy Roman Empire afterwards mostly became limited on nobility and urban elites.
Spread of Reformation Outside the Holy Roman Empire
Reformation spread relatively slowly outside the Holy Roman Empire except in Scandinavian countries. For that reason most Protestant countries adopted Calvinism rather than Lutheranism. The position of the monarchs was crucial outside the Holy Roman Empire as the new faith mostly spread from above and was often closely related to political factors. In the Netherlands, for instance, Reformation was a part of the national war against Spain, while the Protestants in eastern Europe were the opponents of the ruling Habsburg dynasty at the same time. Reformation in England which resulted in the establishment of the Anglican Church, on the other hand, was provoked by the conflict between Henry VIII and the Pope who refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Catholic Counter-Reformation
The Catholic Church which became worried about the Reformation movement launched Counter-Reformation, also known as the Catholic Reformation with an aim to reform the church and restore Catholicism in Europe. The central event of Counter-Reformation was the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563 which introduced far-reaching reforms and increased the popularity of Catholic faith. The main “evils“ including the sale of indulgences and simony were abolished, worship became standardized, the old religious orders were reformed and the new ones were established.
Role of Catholic Religious Orders in Counter-Reformation
Catholic religious orders, in the first place the newly established Jesuits achieved greater success than Inquisition and restoration of Catholicism by force. They helped win back parts of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Poland and Bohemia as well as spread Catholicism outside Europe. In England, Counter-Reformation achieved little success except during the brief rule of Mary I (1553-1558) but managed to win the Irish. Restoration of Catholicism in France where the tensions between the Catholics and French Protestants (Huguenots) provoked the Wars of Religion (1562-1592) started after conversion of Henry IV to Catholicism shortly before his accession to the throne in 1589.
Religious Wars and Restoration of Catholicism by Force
Both Reformation and Counter-Reformation were marked by increased tensions between the followers of Protestantism and those who remained loyal to Catholicism resulting in a number of religious wars from the very beginning of the Reformation movement. Both the Protestants and Catholics eventually formed alliances with an aim to defend Reformation and root out the Protestants by force, respectively. Except in Spain, restoration of Catholicism by force achieved little success, while even Philip II of Spain failed to suppress Protestantism in the Netherlands.
Peace of Augsburg
Philip’s father and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V managed to defeat the Lutheran Schmalkadic League in 1547 but was not able to force the rebel princes to return to Catholicism. In 1555, he was forced to accept the Peace of Augsburg which established the principle Cuius regio, eius religio (Whose realm, his religion) and legalized Lutheranism. The peace, however, did not recognize other Protestant groups including Calvinists which proved to be one of the leading causes of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).
Wars of Religion and Persecution of Huguenots
The struggle of the Huguenots for freedom of worship and Catholic opposition provoked a bloody civil war in France, known as the Wars of Religion that were further complicated by intervention of other European states on either side. The war came to an end with the Edict of Nantes proclaiming religious toleration in 1598 but the persecution of the Protestants in France continued. In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and ordered conversion of the Protestants to Catholicism. Louis’ effort to make France a Catholic state, however, failed. Thousands of Huguenots fled France, while those who did not leave secretly remained loyal to Protestantism. The persecution of the Protestants in France finally came to an end with the Edict of Versailles in 1787.
Peace of Westphalia and the End of Monopoly of the Catholic Church over Religion in Europe
The struggle between the Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire came to an end with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The treaty that ended the Thirty Years’ War also marked the end of Counter-Reformation by legally equalizing Catholicism and Protestantism including Calvinism. The monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church over religion in Europe thus finally came to an end.
